Featured Post
Topics in Ethics for Truck Companies and Hotels - myassignmenthelp
Question: Talk about theTopics in Ethics for Truck Companies and Hotels. Answer: Presentation: One of the most noteworthy divisi...
Sunday, January 26, 2020
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) Technology
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) Technology Investigation on the physical layer technologies employed in the GSM System Absyarie Syafiq Bin Shahrin Abstract Basically in this paper, we intend to give a rundown on GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) specifically on the technologies employed at the physical layer in the GSM system. The GSM system is a very interesting topic as it revolutionized the way we communicate and it is still being used till this day. It is actually the 2nd Generation (2G) wireless system as it uses digital instead of analog and it also deploys Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) that is implemented on multiple frequency subbands. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). GMSK modulation and demodulation technique will also be discussed together with how it works and what their advantages/disadvantages are. The problems with ISI (Intersymbol Interference) in GSM systems will also be addressed together with how to mitigate ISI using channel equalization. With that, we will also give a simple explanation on how speech coding is accomplished in GSM transceivers. Keywords: Gaussian Pulse, GMSK, ISI, channel equalizer, ISI equalizer, speech coding I. Introduction GSM is a standard developed by the ETSI (Europe Telecommunication Standards Institute) to describe the protocols of the 2nd Generation (2G) communication technology used by mobile networks and cell phones. It was first launched in Finland with a data speed of up to 64kbps. The GSM is given the term 2G because it is something completely new compared to the first generation (1G) with the usage of digital signal signals instead of analog. It was designed from scratch with no backward compatibility with the previous 1G technology. Using 124 channels per cell, it can accommodate up to 8 users by using a combination of TDMA and FDD scheme [1], though some of its channels are used for control signals. It also introduces the SIM (Subscriber identity module) card which allows for roaming calls. At first, it was only designed for operation in the 900 MHz band but later it was adapted for 1800Mhz. GSM is a very popular standard used today with over 90% market share, with availability in over 21 9 countries and territories worldwide. Originally the GSM was developed with the intention that it will replace the first generation analog networks by having digital, circuit-switched networks which are optimized for full-duplex voice telephony. However as time passes, the GSM system was further developed to include data communications by firstly having it on circuit-switched transport, and then changing it later to packet-switched transport via GPRS ( General Packet Radio Service) and EDGE ( Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution) . In GSM, Gaussian pulse shaping is used and Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) as a modulation/demodulation technique with a modulation index of 0.5 [2]. This modulation method however gives rise to inter symbol interference. Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) in the GSM system are usually caused by two factors; Multipath propagation and Bandlimited channels. An ISI equalizer is used to solve this problem by implementing the Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE) via vertibri algorithm. To make things easier to understand, Figure 1 is attached to relate how the GSM system can relate to the OSI (Open System Interconnection) model. We will however, focus more on the Physical Layer of the GSM system. Figure 1: How the GSM is realized in the famous OSI model [7]. Pulse Shaping In digital telecommunications systems, we strive to achieve broad spread spectrum with significant low-frequency content. This in return, requires a lowpass channel that has a bandwidth sufficient enough to accommodate the essential frequency content in the data stream. Gaussian function fits this requirement perfectly. The speciality of this waveshape is that, the pulses rise and small smoothly until it settles to a value [14]. This is a valuable asset as it gives a solution to problems such as precursors, overshoot and ringing in a pulse signal [14]. This problems cause uncertainty to the actual value so it is very troublesome. Besides that, it also addresses the two required needs of communication systems which are band-limited channels and reduced Inter-symbol interference (ISI) by applying a Gaussian filter symbol-by-symbol. It is nearly impossible to get the perfect sinc spectrum in the time domain as the bandwidth needs to be infinity. We can only have an approximation or near the same sinc spectrum. ISI can also still happen if control is not exercised over the pulse shaping. Figure 2: An impulse response of a Gaussian Filter [15] In GSM, we apply Gaussian filtering for Gaussian Filtering Minimum Shift keying (GMSK) a modulation technique. Basically it is similar as the Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) but the data stream must first go through pulse shaping via Gaussian filter before being applied to the modulator. MSK is already a good modulation scheme as it possess constant envelope and maintains phase continuity. GMSK allows for reduced sideband power which results in the reducing of out-of-band interference between the signal carriers in adjacent frequency channels. The GMSK technique has an advantage of being able to carry data while still maintaining an efficient usage of spectrum. The reduce power in the GMSK is very useful especially for mobile phones as lower battery consumption is needed for operation [16]. The drawback of GMSK is that, it requires more modulation memory in the system and causes ISI. We have two ways to generate GMSK modulation. The most basic way is to apply Gaussian filter on the input signal and then apply a frequency modulator with a modulation index of 0.5 [2] [16]. The problem with this method is that it must have an exact modulation index of 0.5. In the real world, this is impossible as component tolerance drift can vary[16]. Figure: Flow chart of GMSK modulation using a Gaussian filter and Voltage controlled oscillator The second method is more realistic and widely used. This GMSK method uses the Quadrature (I-Q) modulator. The operation starts by having the Gaussian filtered data separated into two parts, in-phase I and quadrature phase (Q). The I and Q components will then be mixed up to the frequency of the RF carrier to have a modulated RF signal. This kind of modulator can maintain 0.5 modulation index without having any modifications. The performance of this quadruple modulation depends on the accurate creation of I and Q components. For demodulation, this scheme can be used in reverse [16]. X ââ¬â mixer or multiplier LO ââ¬â Local oscillator Figure 3: Block diagram of I-Q modulator Inter symbol interference and channel equalization ISI in the GSM system is mainly caused by multipath propagation. Multipath propagation is a result when signals arrive at different times (delay) because it is does not travel in line of sight (LOS). In reality, connection will never be in LOS all the time so the signals will go through different paths by being reflected or refracted from different objects to reach the destination. When the signals travel through multiple paths, they will arrive at different times depending on the route they used. It is also possible for reflected signals to overlap with the subsequent signals [13]. This in addition, results in distortion to the received signals because all the signals have different delay. This situation happens either from mobile station to base station or vice versa. Since the delay spread is more than the symbol time, frequency selective fading occurs. Figure 4: An example of multipath propagation Figure 5: ISI as a result of multipath distortion [13] To combat the problem with multipath propagation, we use and ISI equalizer. This equalization technique is based on the MLSE which uses the Viterbi Algorithm [3] [10]. Figure below shows the block diagram of the ISI equalizer. Figure 6: Block diagram on how ISI equalizer is used in GSM environment When the base station or the mobile station transmits a TDMA burst, not all of is user data. Instead, 26 bits are allocated for the training sequence and they are known by their receivers (either mobile station or base station). Each of the known sequence bits unique for a certain transmitter is unique for a certain transmitter and this sequence bits is also repeated in every transmission burst. The figure below shows the normal burst structure in the GSM burst. Figure 7: GSM Normal Burst Structure A channel estimator is needed because to perform MLSE, we require information on the CIR (Channel Impulse Response). The channel estimator will estimate the CIR for each of the bursts by comparing the transmitted bits with the received signal to produce he(t) [10]. Channel estimation in GSM uses Linear MMSE (Minimum mean square error) [11]. Since the match filter is in time domain, r(t) will be convoluted with the signal obtained from the channel estimation, he(t) to create a model signal Y(t). The output model signal obtained can then be used to estimate the transmitted bits based on the bits received by performing MLSE. The last process uses Viterbi Algorithm hence the process, Viterbi equalisation [2] [9]. Speech coding in GSM transceivers Speech is originally analog in nature and GSM is a digital system. In order to use the speech information, we need to run to a series of process known as speech processing. Figure shows how the speech processing is done in a GSM system. In speech coding, the GSM system has used a variety of ways to fit in 3.1 kHz audio into between 6.5 and 13 kbit/s. The first two codecs used was called Half Rate (5.8 kbit/s) and Full rate (13 kbit/s) [4]. Both of this codecs use LPC (Linear Prediction Function) where voice signals need to be digitized, and secured using encryption over a narrow voice channel. As time passes, the GSM system was further developed to use the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) codec which is a 12.2 kbit/s codec and it uses a full-rate channel. Figure 8: Flow-diagram on GSM speech processing [8] Full rate speech coder is actually part of the Regular Pulse Excitation ââ¬â Long Term Prediction (RPE-LTP) coders [4]. Firstly the speech encoder will take an input of 13 bit uniform PCM signal from either the audio part of the mobile station (MS) or the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) side by using 8 bit/A-law to 13 bit uniform PCM conversion. The encoded speech is then delivered to the channel coding function which will then produce an encoded block having 456 bits with a gross bit rate of 22.8 kbps [4] [5]. The remaining 9.8 kbps is used for error protection purposes. The reverse action is performed for decoding. When encoding, 160 frames in 1 sample is encoded to a block of 260 bits with a sampling rate of 8000 samples/s, hence the bitrate of 13kbps [5]. On the decoding part, 260 bits of encoded blocks is mapped back to the 160 frames output reconstructed speech sample. EFR (Enhanced Full Rate) is a newer version of the speech codec which uses ACELP (Algebraic Code Excited Linear Prediction) algorithm. The motivation for this development is because of the mediocre / poor quality of the GSM-Full Rate codec. This codec is a step-up from the previous FR because it provides speech quality equivalent or close to wireline telephony which uses 32 kbps ADPCM (Adaptive Pulse Code Modulation) [6]. This codec can provide wireline quality in both error and error-free conditions [6]. EFR which is also a form of traffic channel is bi-directional and can transmit both speech and data [9]. Figure 9: shows how error correction is done at layer 1 of the GSM air interface Conclusion All in all, this paper has helped me to better understand the GSM system and how it works in the physical layer. GSM has many sources including but not limited to, books, journals, application notes, lecture notes, documentation as well as survey papers. After reading from various sources, I learned to read efficiently and think critically as the papers written are quite hard and requires a meticulous reading to thoroughly understand what is being presented. I acquired basic research and development (RD) skills and technical writing skills after almost a month of heavy reading and research. How the physical layer in the GSM system works is also understood. The acquired signal must first be shaped through a Gaussian filter in the GMSK modulator. The Quadruple modulator scheme is used as it does not require modifications to maintain 0.5 modulation index. ISI in the GSM are mostly caused by multipath propagations in which gives frequency selective fading. Frequency selective fading happ ens when the delay time is spread because symbols arrive at different times. To address the problems with ISI, we need to have an ISI equalizer. ISI equalizer consists of many components such as match filter and MLSE by Viterbi algorithm. I also learned that we have two speech coding options; full rate speech coder and EFR. All this components are essential when building a GSM system. References [1] Guifen Gu, Guili Peng ââ¬Å"The Survey of GSM Wireless Communication Systemâ⬠International Conference on Computer and Information Application (ICCIA) , 2010 [2] B. Baggini, L. Coppero, G. Gazzoli, L. Sforzini, F. Maloberti, G. Palmisano ââ¬Å"Integrated Digital Modulator and Analog Front-End for GSM Digital Cellular Mobile Radio System, Proc. IEEE 1991 CICC vol. 31, pp.7.6.1{4, Mar. 1991. [3] M. Drutarovskà ½, ââ¬Å"GSM Channel Equalization Algorithm ââ¬â Modern DSP Coprocessor Approarchâ⬠Radioengineering Vol. 8, No 4, December 1999. [4] Besacier, L.; Grassi, S.; Dufaux, A; Ansorge, M.; Pellandini, F., GSM speech coding and speaker recognition,Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, 2000. ICASSP 00. Proceedings. 2000 IEEE International Conference on, vol.2, no., pp.II1085,II1088 vol.2, 2000 [5] www.etsi.org, ââ¬Å"European digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 1); Speech Processing Functions; General Description (GSM 06.01)â⬠, GTS 06.01 version 3.0.0, January 1991. [6] Jarvinen, K.; Vainio, J.; Kapanen, P.; Honkanen, T.; Haavisto, P.; Salami, R.; Laflamme, C.; Adoul, J.-P., GSM enhanced full rate speech codec, Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, 1997. ICASSP-97., 1997 IEEE International Conference on , vol.2, no., pp.771,774 vol.2, 21-24 Apr 1997 [7] ââ¬Å"Fundamentals: Signalling at the Air-Interfaceâ⬠Rohde and Schwartz Training Center v1.0 [8] http://www.rfwireless-world.com/Tutorials/gsm-speech-processing.html [9] ââ¬Å"GSM Air Interface Network Planningâ⬠Training Document, Nokia Networks Oy, Finland, Jan 2002 [10] Vipin Pathak,ââ¬Å"MLSE BASED EQUALIZATION AND FADING CHANNEL MODELING FOR GSMâ⬠(Hughes Software systems, Delhi), pp. 100-104, 2003 [11] Manoj Bapat, Dov Levenglick, and Odi Dahan, ââ¬Å"GSM Channel Equalization, Decoding, and SOVA on the MSC8126 Viterbi Coprocessor (VCOP)â⬠Freescale Semiconductor Application Note, Rev.0, 2005 [12] Baltersee, J.; Fock, G.; Meyr, H.; Yiin, L., Linear MMSE channel estimation for GSM, Global Telecommunications Conference, 1999. GLOBECOM 99 , vol.5, no., pp.2523,2527 vol.5, 1999 [13] Kang, A. S., and Vishal Sharma. Pulse Shape Filtering in Wireless Communication-A Critical Analysis. Pulse 2, no. 3 (2011). [14] James R. Andrews, ââ¬Å"Low-Pass Risetime Filters for Time Domain Applicationsâ⬠, Picosecond Pulse Labs, Application Note AN-7a, March 1999. [15] http://www.ni.com/white-paper/3876/en/ [16] http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/rf-technology-design/pm-phase-modulation/what-is-gmsk-gaussian-minimum-shift-keying-tutorial.php [17] Fred Kostedt, James C. Kemerling, ââ¬Å"Practical GMSK Data Transmissionâ⬠, MX.com, INC, Application Note GMSK, 1998.
Saturday, January 18, 2020
Overfishing: When Humans Exhaust the Oceans Essay
The ocean is one of the major sources of food for human beings. This is not surprising, considering that oceans cover 75% of the Earthââ¬â¢s surface. The Pacific Ocean, for one, is home to well-known edible fish species such as salmon, herring, snapper, sardines and tuna. Furthermore, about 250 new species of fish are described every year (Heemstra, South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity and South Africa Marine & Coastal Management, 1). However, overfishing is currently regarded as the biggest threat to the oceanââ¬â¢s ecosystem. Fishing at a much faster pace than natureââ¬â¢s ability to replenish fish has resulted in long-term economic and ecological consequences. Major fishing industries in various parts of the world have collapsed, resulting in massive unemployment (Iudicello, Weber and Wieland, 11). In addition, the extinction of a certain fish species would certainly spell the loss of other marine life that feed on it. Indeed, if left unchecked, overfishing could turn fish into a rare and expensive delicacy. Before World War II, fishing was associated with cotton nets, hand lines and coastal vessels with short ranges. Fishing capacity was often determined by factors such as the individual fishermanââ¬â¢s eyesight, experience and fish-finding capability. Despite the rudimentary technology, most fish populations survived. The balance between the number of fish populations and peopleââ¬â¢s ability to catch fish was maintained (Iudicello, Weber and Wieland, 11). But after the war, military innovations were applied to fishing equipment. Fiberglass was used to create lighter and cheaper hulls, larger and lighter nets were woven out of synthetic line and diesel engines and other electronic gear were appended to fishing boats to increase their speed and efficiency in locating productive fishing grounds. These were soon followed with advances in processing, transport and marketing of fish. As a result, the availability of fish increased in some countries (Iudicello, Weber and Wieland, 11). Rising human populations and affluence, especially in the United States, Japan and Western Europe, was another factor behind the boom of the fishing industry after World War II. During this period, fish was viewed as a cheap and inexhaustible source of protein. Thus, governments and entrepreneurs invested heavily in fishing vessels and infrastructure. Warnings of environmentalists regarding the dangers of overfishing went unheeded ââ¬â the ocean was supposedly too vast and too deep for its resources to be limited (Iudicello, Weber and Wieland, 12). At present, it appears that nature is already exacting its revenge. Many fisheries around the world now require larger fleets to be able to come up with their usual catch (Iudicello, Weber and Wieland, 12). In addition, some species of fish and other marine life have already become extinct, resulting in the loss of livelihood for many fishermen. Overfishing, once largely-ignored, is now recognized as a grave threat. Fishing is no longer the local affair that it used to be. It is currently a global enterprise that not only generates billions of dollars in private income, but also serves as the economic lifeblood of several countries. According to the 1997 statistics of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), fish and shellfish landings worldwide increased from 16. 3 million metric tons in 1950 to 91. million metric tons in 1995. Meanwhile, the United States and several other countries extended the jurisdiction of their respective fishing industries by about 200 nautical miles offshore between 1950 and 1976 (Iudicello, Weber and Wieland, 12). This resulted in landings having an annual average growth rate of 5%, peaking at 86. 4 million metric tons in 1989 (Iudicello, Weber and Wieland, 13). World landings since 1950 were composed mostly of pelagic (open ocean) species such as tuna, mackerel and sardines. In 1994, they accounted for at least 60% of the worldââ¬â¢s total catch. Pelagic species constitute about 59% of the catch in the Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean, on the other hand, they make up at least 50% (Iudicello, Weber and Wieland, 13). Demersal fishes (species that live in the ocean bottom) are also an important part of the worldââ¬â¢s fishing industry. In 1993, it accounted for about 50% of the worldââ¬â¢s total landings ââ¬â pelagic species made up only 40%. Given the enormous amount of catch from the worldââ¬â¢s oceans between the 1950s and the 1990s, it is inevitable that the percentage of fish landings that are traded internationally rose from 20% to 33% from 1980 to 1993. Much of this cut is from Third World countries, which earned $15 billion in 1990 from fish exports alone (Iudicello, Weber and Wieland, 14). Humans consume about 60% of the worldââ¬â¢s total fish landings in the form of processed fish meal and fish oil. This is because the percentage of catch distributed fresh decreased from almost 50% to 20% from 1950 to 1982. Freezing innovations, however, increased fourfold the percentage of fish marketed frozen ââ¬â from 5% to 22% (Iudicello, Weber and Wieland, 14). Environmental experts argued that the unsustainable nature of fishing since the end of World War II proved to be conducive to the emergence of overfishing. The oceans are said to be ââ¬Å"among the worldââ¬â¢s greatest commons ââ¬â (owned) by everyone and by no oneâ⬠(Hollander, 56). Ships and sailors, for instance, are traditionally regarded as the bearers of the privilege to enjoy the ââ¬Å"freedom of the seasâ⬠(Hollander, 56). Meanwhile, fish ââ¬â a natural and mobile ocean resource ââ¬â was always considered as common property that can be taken freely (Hollander, 56). Thus, those who are engaged in commercial fishing will not think twice about overexploiting the oceanââ¬â¢s fish stocks, as long as their own catch is maximized. As long as the catch was plentiful, people always assumed that the fishes in the ocean were unlimited. Furthermore, fishing was an industry that has been thriving for centuries ââ¬â there was therefore no apparent need to think about its sustainability. The inhabitants of the New England coast, for example, were traditionally known for living off fisheries that caught cod, flounder and haddock. As of 2004, about 200 million people around the world are directly employed in fisheries (Hollander, 56). Poor government planning exacerbates the problem of overfishing. In First World countries, fishing is a state-subsidized industry. Tens of billions of dollars worth of state assistance has prompted those in the fishing industry to further expand their fleet rather than devise sustainable means of catching fish. In addition, economic and cultural differences among competitors in large international fisheries almost always result in the race as to who ends up with the biggest catch (Hollander, 57). Fishers in the worldââ¬â¢s poorest countries are also responsible for the worsening of overfishing. Coastal dwellers in the poorest developing countries often have to compete with each other for the small stocks of fish available in their locality. In order to increase their catch, some fishers use cyanide or blow up coral reefs with dynamite. As coral reefs are the habitats of fishes, dynamite fishing diminishes and eventually destroys fish stocks (Hollander, 61). Being on the edge of starvation, fishers in the poorest nations cannot be blamed if they happened to disregard long-term management. The immediate need to catch fish for food and livelihood often traps them in the vicious cycle of resource overexploitation. But once the sea is already depleted, so is their source of food and livelihood. Thus, something must be done to about overfishing (Hollander, 62). Overfishing is not without serious economic and ecological costs. It has resulted in the near-extinction of the worldââ¬â¢s most important fish species, including the Atlantic halibut, Atlantic bluefin tuna, Atlantic swordfish, North Sea herring, Grand Banks cod, Argentinean hake and the Australian Murray River cod. Overfishing has likewise severely depleted the number of other forms of marine life, such as seals, dolphins, whales, sharks and sea turtles. Furthermore, catches in the overfished areas of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans have declined since attaining their peak in 1989 (Diamond, 480). In the northwest Mediterranean, a study revealed that the removal of fish increases the population of sea urchins. A rise in the sea urchin population, in turn, reduces edible fleshy algae and produces crusts of inedible, coral-like algae. This may result in death to other marine life due to starvation. This experiment just goes to show that overfishing has indirect but very detrimental ecosystem effects (Hollander, 59). Another very negative effect of overfishing is the destruction of livelihoods that are based on fishing. It must be noted that the fishing industry is also composed of other supporting and distributing services like fish handlers and boat builders. Thus, overfishing will push countless fishing families into poverty (Environmental Cares Organization, 250). The collapse of the cod industry in Newfoundland, Canada in 1992 led to the loss of about 40,000 jobs (Greenpeace International, n. pag. ). Because the ocean is one of the major sources of food for human beings, common sense dictates that it must be taken cared of. While there is nothing wrong with fishing, it must allow nature to fully replenish the fish that has been caught. It must not be forgotten that the loss of fish is also the loss of survival for humankind. Thus, steps must be done in order to immediately address the problem of overfishing.
Friday, January 10, 2020
Communicate Effectively at the Direct Leadership Level Essay
a.Mass communication enables you to communicate information to large numbers of people in a relatively short time. .Identify the principles of interpersonal transactional communication a.First principle ââ¬â You cannot NOT communicate. i.Each day we receive thousands of behavioral cues to communicate. We choose which are worthy of our attention. We interpret or attribute meaning to each of these cues. We learn to accept some cues and reject others. We select the cue we will respond to and how we will communicate that response. Through this process, we assign purpose to each communication. Communication with purpose cannot be random. This conditioning process begins early in life. b.Second principle ââ¬â Communication is predictable. i.Whenever you choose to recognize some sensory cue, you must organize the information in some personally acceptable way. The easiest way to do this isà to compare the behavior you now sense to all the behaviors youââ¬â¢ve ever known. As you repeat this process, you come to expect certain patterns of communicative behavior from certain people in certain situations. You learn to categorize people and their responses by paying attention to the feedback you get from people when we communicate with them. In this way, you improve the effectiveness of your communication by learning more about your own and the other personââ¬â¢s communicative patterns. c.Third principle ââ¬â Communication is a ââ¬Å"chicken and eggâ⬠process. i.Think of yourself as a simultaneous and continuous sender and receiver. Because communication occurs constantly in some form, it is difficult to determine whether you communicate first and respond last or vice versa. However, does it really matter? We define the context of our communication through punctuation. Punctuation is simply assigning specific beginning and ending points along the line of the continuous communication process. Human communication, as a dynamic process is best understood as a system where senders are simultaneously receivers and receivers are simultaneously senders. d.Fourth principle ââ¬â Communication occurs at two levels. i.Communication not only conveys information, but at the same time imposes behavior. All interpersonal communication occurs at two levels: content and process. ââ¬Å"The Dynamics of Human Communicationâ⬠refers to the two levels as content and relationship while the USASMA model refers to them as content and process. We will use content and process. Content communication conveys information. Process communication (tone, context, gesture, and other nonverbal action) sends instructions to the receiver about how to interpret the message. When the content message does not match the process message, conflict and mistrust form in the mind of the receiver. e.Fifth principle ââ¬â Transactions are between equals or upââ¬âandââ¬âdown. i.You relate to people as equals or as nonequals. A typical example of a nonequal relationship is that of the motherââ¬âinfant pair. Nonequal relationships include two different positions: one communicator is in the superior, or oneââ¬âup position, while the other is in the oneââ¬âdown, or inferior position. Do not equate the words ââ¬Å"upâ⬠and ââ¬Å"downâ⬠with judgmental terms as ââ¬Å"good,â⬠ââ¬Å"bad,â⬠ââ¬Å"strong,â⬠or ââ¬Å"weak.â⬠Nonequal relationships are often set by social or cultural factors. It is usual for oneââ¬âup persons to define the nature of the relationship. f.Sixthà principle ââ¬â Communication is a sharing of meaning. i.This means that what meaning one person assigns to a word or image may not be the same as the meaning assigned by someone else to the same word or image. Each of us has our own system of classification, our own filtration system, by which we assign meaning. When we share our assigned meanings (GUESSES) with others, we expose some of our selfââ¬âhoping that the other will understand us and interpret our meaning as we do. 4.Identify the relationship between listening and effective oral communication a.The Three Myths about Listening i.Listening is a natural process.- If you believe that listening occurs naturally, like breathing, then it follows that you never need to learn how to do it. Listening is a skill just like driving a golf ball or firing a rifle. You develop the skill just as you would any other skill. ii.Listening is the same as hearing.- Hearing is a natural process, but as we stated above, listening is a skill that we develop. We can train ourselves to ââ¬Å"not listenâ⬠or to listen selectively. iii.Listening is the same as paying attention.- Many times we pretend to listen when we really are not. The receiver of the communication must indicate to the speaker that he is being heard and understood. The receiver indicates attention through both verbal and nonverbal indicators. b.Overview i.Letââ¬â¢s look at listening from a different approach, in relation to four types of internal and external responses to spoken messages. These responses range from very casual, almost accidental, to very deliberate and purposeful types of responses. They are not orderly stages that you go through when listening, nor a sequence that must be followed. All or only a few of these may occur within one set of listening transaction, or they may be skipped or types may be applied in any sequence. The four types are reflex, content, relational or active, and introspective listening. c.Type I, Reflex Listening i.A very basic kind of listening involving little more than hearing and a recognition that some noise has come to you. Reflex listening is very common in social settings, classrooms, public settings, and in concerts. Reflex listening involves primarily ââ¬Å"guidanceâ⬠noises where you can move out ofà danger, approach and engage prospective pleasant experiences, but stay tuned to hear other important messages should they occur. d.Type II, Content Listening i.This type of listening is the one most frequently referred to when teachers and managers (leaders) criticize ââ¬Å"poorâ⬠listening. Learning in school, receiving instructions on the job, getting information about what to do and how to run your life, are all involved in the content level. You listen to learn and to understand and to somehow retain information. An important dimension of contentââ¬âtype listening is an ability to detect which messages are accurate, useful, sound, truthful, reliable, and relevant. e.Type III, Relational Listening i.Listening is important not only in relation to getting the content of the message called ââ¬Å"deliberative listeningâ⬠but also in another dimension called ââ¬Å"empathic listening.â⬠This empathic dimension to listening includes active listening. Active listening reflects a whole orientation to life and to peopleââ¬âone which implies that to listen is to have the creative power to imagine how it would make sense to say what the other person is saying. It says that the other person (the speaker) is fundamentally important and worth listening to. How do you ââ¬Å"doâ⬠active listeningââ¬âby listening to a person without passing judgment on what is being said, and mirroring back what has been said to indicate that you understand the feelings the speaker was putting across. Effective communication is free to happen when threats have been removed. By the mirroring process, you help build a climate in which you can be accepting, noncritical, and nonââ¬âmor alizing. f.Type IV, introspective listening i.Focus in this type of listening is on having something happen to the listener, not to the speaker. It may be the inner enjoyment of hearing poetry or music or spoken endearments. You experience something when you listen introspectively. Introspective listening has the quality of listening with a very open mind, but it also has the uncommon quality of applying your own deep understanding of your personal commitments and of the persuasion process as you evaluate the speakersââ¬â¢ messages.
Thursday, January 2, 2020
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)